Origin of Sociology: The Science of Society

There is always a connection between the social conditions of a period and the ideas, which arise and are dominant in that period. For thousands of years, society has been a subject for speculation and enquiry. Yet, sociology is a modern science which originated only within last hundred fifty years or so. Sociology is the study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society. It emerged as a distinct discipline in 19^th century Europe. The three major factors which influence the emergence of sociology as a sphere of study began in the late eighteenth century with the French Revolution, the period known as 'the Enlightenment' and the Industrial Revolution.

The French revolution had lasted for ten whole years and was the first modern and ideological revolution in Europe. It had a great impact on people because it changed the societal structure entirely. It managed to eliminate the social discrepancies between people and the feudal society. The power was taken away from the Church and came to hands of the people. This was the first time that the common people became empowered. People were seen as citizens with certain rights. In addition to this, the clerical hierarchy also gave up its rights and property. These changes had a historical, political and social impact in the entire of Europe and not just France. Also, the French Revolution brought significant changes to the common family structure since it was followed by the Declaration of Human Rights which stated that all humans are born free and equal. 'Civil marriage' and 'divorce' were established. Civil marriage was another way for people to project their doubts upon the Church. The concept of divorce was gradually being accepted in the society. Education and religion also changed significantly.

French Revolution

 The industrial revolution which took place from 18^th and 19^th century was a period during which rural societies in Europe became urban and mechanised. Industrialization brought in goods in a large amount and variety. While it improved the European economy greatly, and improved living conditions for some people it also created grim employment and living conditions for some poor and working classes. The new industrial capitalism although improved the quality of life but it also led to creation of urban centres, population boost and realization of problems such as exploitation,  housing,  health, slum development etc. which became problems and issues of sociology. The events that were conducive in transformation of Europe from premodern to modern along with socio, political and economic revolutions are integral to the emergence of sociology.

Industrial Revolution

The Enlightenment was another major movement contributing to the emergence of sociology in the late 18th and early 19th century. The Enlightenment is considered to be the source of critical and newly emerged ideas, such as the freedom, democracy, and reason as primary values of society. The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement consisting of many philosophers. The most popular figures of this new framework were Charles Montesquieu, Jacques Tugot and Jean Condorcet. They attempted to question the traditional and existing conceptions of the world.

Sociology emerged in response to the challenges of modernity in these eras. Increasing mobility and technological advances resulted in the increasing exposure of people to cultures and societies different from their own. The impact of this exposure was varied, but for some people it included the breakdown of traditional norms and customs and developed a vivid understanding of how the world works. Additionally, the growth of cities and religious transformations were causing many changes in people’s lives as well. Another factor which incentivised the emergence of sociology is that during these eras people began to question age old traditions and implemented rational thinking to them. A new perspective emerged amongst the people, fuelling the development of a structured society.

Although, the study of society can be traced to the Greek philosophers, Pwslato and Aristotle, the term sociology was coined by French philosopher Auguste Comte in 1838, who for this reason is known as the “Father of Sociology.” The philosophical basis of Plato and Aristotle characterised the observations of man for a very long period of time. The literature concerning society and its problems found place in the Republic of Plato and in the Politic and Ethics of Aristotle.

Enlightenment

Auguste Comte felt that science could be used to study the social world. Just as there are testable facts regarding gravity and other natural laws, Comte thought that scientific analyses could also discover the laws governing our social lives. In this context, Comte introduced the concept of positivism. Positivism is a way to understand the social world based on scientific facts. It is the philosophical system of Auguste Comte, recognising only positive facts in observable phenomena and rejecting metaphysics and theism and religious system founded on this. Thus, Comte was against all types of irrational elements in social thinking. He believed that, with this new understanding, people could build a better future. He envisioned a process of social change in which sociologists played crucial roles in guiding and reinventing the society.

Auguste Comte

There were other events in that time period which also influenced the development of sociology. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries were times of many social disruptions and changes in the social order which were a matter of interest the early sociologists. The political revolutions sweeping Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led to a focus on social change and the establishment of social order that still inspires sociologists today to think and study. Many early sociologists were greatly fretful about the Industrial Revolution and rise of capitalism and socialism as well. Auguste Comte was also disturbed by the tumultuous conditions of the French society and was critical of Enlightenment and the French Revolution. He stressed upon the necessity of a systematic structure of society and accorded great importance to the role of ‘consensus’.

Other classical theorists of sociology from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, W.E.B. DuBois, and Harriet Martineau. As pioneers in sociology, most of the early sociological thinkers were trained in other academic disciplines, including history, philosophy, and economics. The diversity of their trainings is reflected in the topics they researched, including religion, education, economics, inequality, psychology, ethics, philosophy, and theology. These forerunners of sociology all had a vision of using sociology to call attention to social concerns and bring about social change.

Together, the span the whole of the nineteenth and early twentieth century, during which modern sociology was formed. They represent the main national centres France, England and Germany in which sociology first flourished and in which the modern tradition began. Each exerted a profound personal influence on the conception of sociology as an intellectual discipline. For instance, in Europe, Karl Marx teamed with wealthy industrialist Friedrich Engels to study the case of class inequality. Writing during the Industrial Revolution, when many factory owners were lavishly wealthy and many factory workers miserably poor, they attacked the proliferating inequalities of the day and focused on the role of capitalist economic structures in preserving these inequalities. In Germany, Max Weber was active in politics while in France, Emile Durkheim encouraged educational reform. In Britain, Harriet Martineau stood up for the rights of girls and women, and in the US, W.E.B. DuBois focused on the plight of racism.

Society is the largest organisation of the individuals. Society has its own problems in every field yet it is majorly sustained by harmonious co-existence. It is through the study of sociology that the scientific study of society has been possible. The study of society not just has great significance in modern society, it has become requisite. The study of society contributes to the invention of social policies which requires certain amount of specific knowledge about that society. Sociology also provides a great deal of information that is helpful in making decisions on social policy. Another specific aspect of sociology is the study of the great social institutions and the relations of the individual humans with them. Hence, there is a need for the strengthening of these institutions and one of the first essentials is the scientific study of their problems and situations. Sociology has analysed the causes of the many difficulties of society and suggested the means for fixing them. A scientific study of societal problems is required if they are to be solved. Hence, sociology is highly important and very relevant to the human society.

Three of the Scariest humans in History

The world as it stands today had gone through a long history, enduring ravages and tasting glory. Yet, there were some people in the history of the world who had shaken humanity scariest people in the history of the world. Their mention still sends a shiver through our spines; such was their reputation. Here are a three amongst those horrifying humans who are sure to act as nightmare fuels for everyone.

      1.  Vlad the Impaler- Also known as Vlad Tepes, was the son of Vlad Dracul, who was the king of Wallachia in the 15^th century. Vlad and his brother were taken as hostages by the Ottoman Empire during his early years. It is speculated that during this phase, his mind endured a trauma which caused him to act like an inhuman being later in his life. After his father’s demise, he was sent back to Wallachia wherein he was installed as the King. His years of reign saw one of the most horrible scars endured by humanity. He followed strict rules in his kingdom and anyone failing to abide by them would be subjected to a horrible fate. A technique of torture, called impaling which is the most painful thing ever documented in the history of man. To know more about impaling you can click here, but disclaimer, it is not for the faint hearted!  He killed millions including his own men using the same technique. He was also known to add a few drops of blood of his victims in his wine. This inspired Bram Stoker to write his book ‘Dracula’. He was finally assassinated in 1476. His reign of terror ha such an impact on his citizens that they were sacred of his carcass too!

Vlas Tepes

      2. Elizabeth Bathory- Elizabeth Bathory was born in Transylvania in 1560 to an eminent family that included kings, cardinals, knights, and judges. Though she had many personalities among her relatives, her family tree also included several utterly disturbed kin. One of her uncles trained her in Satanism, while her aunt taught her all about sadomasochism. Countess Elizabeth Bathory used to practice torture sessions of young girls. Bathory was already infamous in her area for her torture and murder of servants and peasants, but her title and high-ranking relatives had, until this point, made her untouchable. Her bloodthirsty activities have led many to cite her as one of the first vampires in history.Her husband, Csejthe Castle used to restrain her impulses but when he died in the early 1600s, she became worse beyond imagination. Bathory began abducting peasant girls to torture and kill them for her muse. Bathory reportedly believed that human blood would keep her looking young and healthy so she bathed in the blood of her victims. Later, she was restricted to a room of the castle that only had slits for air and food. She survived for three years but was found dead in August 1614.

Elizabeth Bathory

      3.  Gilles de Rais- Gilles de Rais was born in September 1404, Champtocé, France was a marshal of France, and man of wealth whose illustrious career was terminated in an eminent trial for Satanism, abduction, and child murder. His name was later associated with the tale of Bluebeard.  Rais had inherited extensive territories from both his father and his maternal grandfather and had also married a wealthy heiress, Catherine de Thouars. He kept a more extravagant court than the king himself, squandering his wealth on the beautification of his châteaux and the upkeep of a large train of domestics, heralds, and priests. He was a munificent patron of music, literature, and pageants, in one of which he figured. When his family secured a verdict from the king in July 1435, preventing him from vending or forfeiting the rest of his lands, he turned to alchemy. He also developed an interest in Satanism, hoping to gain knowledge, power, and riches by invoking the devil. He was later accused of having abducted, tortured, and murdered more than 140 children. Rais was arrested in September 1440 and brought to trial in Nantes, first before an apostolic court under the direction of the bishop of Nantes and then before a civil court. At first he refused to succumb to the charges, but, when threatened with excommunication, he recognized the court’s authority and declared himself not guilty. He was sentenced for profanation by the priestly court and sentenced to death for murder by the civil court. His confession and his repentance and the resignation with which he went to his hanging were acclaimed at the time as an example of Christian penitence. But skeptics have pointed to the numerous anomalies of the proceedings, the duke of Brittany’s financial interest in his ruin, and the fact that Rais confessed under threat of torture.

Gilles de Rais

Here were a few humans who have inspired several horror stories and nightmares. These tales of reality are more horrifying than several fictional tales too. This goes on the prove that humanity also has a dark side and its not as glorious as it seems!

The Legend Of Achilles

In Greek Mythology, Achilles is considered to be one of the legendary heroes. He was an incredible, bold and brave warrior and was very loyal to his friends. He was also invulnerable except his “Achilles heel”. His stories and adventures are shown in the great poet Homer's the Illiad.

Early life

Like most mythological heroes, he family was complicated. His father was Peleus, the king of Myrmidons who were courageous and skilled soldiers. His mother was a sea nymph, Thetis. Thetis was always worried about her child Achilles. She always had a fear that he might die. She tried various ways to make him immortal. She dipped him into the waters of the River Styx, whose waters were told to grant the immortality of the gods and made him invulnerable. However, she kept hold of his foot as she dipped him into the river and the water didn’t touch his heel. As a result, it was the only vulnerable area of his body.

When he was a child, a prophet predicted that Achilles would die heroically by fighting the Trojans.   In fear of her son, Thetis sent him to the island of Skyros. But he soon left it and joined a Greek army and trained himself as a warrior. At last Thetis asked Hephaestus the divine blacksmith to make a sword and shield that would protect Achilles. The shield was distinctive and it made him stand out from others.

Achilles and the Trojan War

Legend says that the Trojan war was begun by the god-king Zeus in an effort to diminish the earthy human population. He arranged a war between the Greeks and the Trojans. At the wedding of Achilles's parents, the prince of Troy was invited by Zeus. His name was Paris. He was asked to be a judge at a beauty contest between goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite. Aphrodite was the most charming of all and she promised to give the young prince the most beautiful wife in the world. The beautiful was she was talking about was unfortunately the daughter of Zeus- Helen who was already married to the King of Sparta, Menelaus. However Paris decided to go to Sparta and win her heart. He eventually did. This enraged the Spartan king and he decided to bring her back and also destroy Troy. This started the beginning of the Trojan war which lasted for almost 10 years. 

However, Achilles had a fight with Menelaus and he refused to fight the battle with him. As Achilles withdrew from the battle the Greek army suffered heavy defeat against the Trojans. So, Patroclus, Achilles's loyal friend arranged a compromise between them. He accepted his comprimise  but refused to go into battle. So Achilles gave his shield to Patroclus which would deceive the enemy thinking that it was Achilles who has returned to the battlefield and would make the Trojan army retreat. But Hector, Paris's elder brother killed him in the battle. Hearing this shocking news Achilles went to challenge Hector for a fight and he killed him. He embarrassed Hector by tying him at the back of his chariot and dragging him all the way to the Achaean camp. But he returns his dead body for proper burial in Troy.

According to legend, Achilles wanted to inflict further damage upon Troy to revenge his friend. But Apollo, told Paris that he was coming. Paris was not a brave warrior and he ambushed him as he entered Troy. He knew Achilles's weakness and he shot an arrow on his heel which was his only weak spot. He died heroically on the spot, without a single defeat in battle.

Surya Sen : An unsung hero of India's Freedom

Early life:

Sen was born on 22 March 1894 at Noapara, in Chittagong, Bengal. His father Ramaniranjan Sen was a teacher by profession. In 1916 when he was a B.A. student in Berhampore College he learned about Indian freedom movement from one of his teachers. He felt attracted towards revolutionary ideals and joined a revolutionary organization called Anushilan Samity. After completing his studies he returned to Chittagong in 1918 and joined as a Mathematics teacher at National school, Nandankanan . 

Sen was noted for leading the 1930 Chittagong armoury raid in Chittagong, Bengal.

He was popularly called as “Master Da”.

1930 Chittagong armoury raid:

Surya Sen led a group of revolutionaries on 18 April 1930 to raid the armoury of police from the Chittagong armoury. The plan was of the seizing of arms from the armoury as well as destruction of communication system of the city (including telephone, telegraph and railway), thereby isolating Chittagong from the rest of British India. However, the group could loot the arms, but they failed to get the ammunition. They hoisted the Indian National Flag on the premises of the armoury, and then escaped. A few days later, a large fraction of the revolutionary group was cornered in the nearby Jalalabad hills by the British troops. In the ensuing fight, twelve revolutionaries died, many were arrested, while some managed to flee, including Sen.

Arrest and Death:

Sen stayed in hiding, and kept moving from one place to another. Sometimes he took up a job as a workman, a farmer, a priest, a house worker or even as a pious Muslim. This was how he avoided being captured by the British. He once hid in the house of a man called Netra Sen. But Netra Sen informed the British of his hiding, and the police came and captured him in February 1933. Before Netra Sen could be rewarded by the British, a revolutionary came into his house and beheaded him with a long knife called da. As Netra Sen's wife was a big supporter of Surya Sen, she never disclosed the name of the revolutionary who killed Netra Sen. 

Before Surya Sen was hanged, he was brutally tortured by the British. The British executioners broke all his teeth with a hammer, and pulled out all his nails. They broke all his limbs and joints. He was dragged to the rope unconscious.

His last letter was written to his friends and said:

 "Death is knocking at my door. My mind is flying away towards eternity ...At such a pleasant, at such a grave, at such a solemn moment, what shall I leave behind you? Only one thing, that is my dream, a golden dream-the dream of Free India.... Never forget the 18th of April,1930, the day of the eastern Rebellion in Chittagong... Write in red letters in the core of your hearts the names of the patriots who have sacrificed their lives at the altar of India’s freedom." 

Sen was given a burial at sea in the Bay of Bengal.

Its a pity that many of us don't even know who Surya Sen was and he has done so much for the freedom that we enjoy today.

Industrial Revolution And Its Effects

The Industrial Revolution led to the new age of industry. With the development of the spinning machine by Sir Richard Awkwright in England led to the new era of manufacturing products. It started the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution which occurred in the 18th-19th centuries was a period in which the rural societies of Europe and America became industrial. This helped them to surpass others and helped them to become leading manufacturing nations.  Before the revolution, most of the manufacturing was done by hand. The iron and textile industries, with the invention of the steam engine played a fundamental role in the Industrial Revolution. It improved systems such as banking, transportation and communication. However it brought high standard of living for the rich and the rest mainly the working classes suffered poverty.

How the Industrial Revolution began?

Before the revolution began, people mainly lived in small houses and their livelihood primarily consisted of farming. Life was hard as work was more and incomes were low. Most manufacturing were done in small houses with hands or simple machinery. 

Britain was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. Research says that Great Britain had large reserves of coal and iron ore and it was the world's leading colonial power. It’s colonies served as a marketplace for resources for raw materials. The demand for British goods quickly increased and new machinery and methods of production needed which led to the rise of factory system.

Industrial Revolution and Textile Industry

The Industrial Revolution aided the Textile Industry in a great way. Textiles were primarily made by people at homes before the revolution. It made production slow and consumed much time. Also human labour made errors and the production sometimes became inefficient. The innovation of the “spinning jenny” by James Hargreaves of England was a great help to the workforce. It enabled to produce multiple spools of threads continuously. It was further improved by British inventor Samuel Compton. The power loom which was another invention transformed the process of weaving clothes and it was developed by inventor Edmund Cartwright in 1743. Developments in the iron industry helped the revolution further. Abraham Darby, an Englishman discovered a cheap and easy to use method of producing cast iron. Iron and steel became valuable materials for producing ships, buildings, new tools and machines. The steam engine also greatly helped in the industrialization process. With later innovations the steam engine began to power ships and various other machines.

The Industrial Revolution life

The Industrial Revolution brought higher quality of life and increased  living standards for most people. The upper and middle classes benefited the most. However it effected the rural areas and unsanitary living continued to progress for the poor and lower classes. It gradually improved as various reforms were made by the government and  workers got rights of forming trade unions.

Spread of Industrialization 

The British forwarded various laws to stop the industrialization to various countries outside Britain but they failed. Industrialization spread and it reached other countries such as France, Germany and other European countries. Industrialization was well-established in Western Europe and north-eastern parts of America in the mid 19th century. By the early half of the 20th century, the U.S became the leading industrial nation in the world.

MASS MEDIA: A Brief History

Mass media are tools for the transfer of information, concepts and ideas to the audience, the readers, listeners or the viewers. They are important tools in disseminating information; they make possible communication exchange and spread of knowledge which are vital as far as societies and cultures are concerned. The goals of societies are nurtured and made or reality through mass media in the modern context, for instance communication about education, health, role of panchayat representatives and other are easy and can be done only through the tools of mass media namely newspapers,radio and television.

Mass media create awareness, generate debate and spread knowledge through disseminating information in the society. All these have a significant role in the context of evolution of cultures and their preservation over times. In early days, when the mass media did not exist as they do now there were various medium restricted in approach and narrow in scope.

The history of mass media can be traced back to the days when dramas were performed in various cultures. The term ‘mass media’ was coined with the creation of print media, which is notable for being the first example of mass media, as we use the term today. This form of media started in Europe in the middle ages, Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of printing press allowed mass production of books to sweep the nation. He printed the first book, a Latin bible on a printing press with movable type in 1453. The invention of the orienting press gave rise to some of the first forms of mass communication by enabling the publication of books and newspapers on a scale much larger than was previously possible. 

The publication of books remained too expensive really to be called mass medium for a century or so.Newspapers developed from about 1612, but they took until the 19^th century to reach a mass audience directly. The Times, a newspaper published from London in early 1880s was the first high circulating newspaper, covering a wide geographical area.

The phrase ‘media’ began to be used in the 1920s. The notion of mass media was generally restricted to print media until the post second world war, when radio, television and video were introduced. The auto visual facilities became very popular and covered the mass of all strata because they provided both information and entertainment. In the last decades of the 20^th century, the internet became the latest and most popular mass medium. Information has become readily available through websites and easily accessible through search engines. One can do many activities at the same time. Modern mass media includes the internet, cell phones, blogs, pad casts and social networking off course. 

During the 20^th century the growth and reach of mass media was driven by technology including that which would allow duplication of material. The physical duplication of books, newspapers and movies at low prices allowed the reach of mass media at the remotest of remote part of the country. In a democratic society mass media started serving the electorate about issues regarding government and corporate entities.

7 countries to visit in your life if you love history

Travelling is the most enriching and fulfilling experience in one’s lives. It is said that travelling fills your soul. A person, who sees the world, gets closer and closer to oneself and tends to appreciate the world in all its tainted glory.

    1)  Greece-Rich history, picturesque landscapes, food and incessant events draw visitors to this magnificent country. Athens, the capital of the country is a must see if one goes there. Places one shouldn’t miss in Athens are: The Acropolis, The Parthenon, The Agora, National Archeological Museum, Syntagma Square, The Plaka, Cape Souniou, The Temple of Poseidon. Olympia, Rhode Island, Meteora are amongst the cities one shouldn’t miss.

     2) China- One of the largest counties in the world with one of the richest histories. The capital, Beijing, is embellished with historical marvels. The Great Wall of China, Temple of Heaven, Beijing Hutogs are the not-to-miss spots in the city. Also the city of Xi'an sustains the Ancient City Wall and the widely popular Muslim Food Street. In the city of Dunhuang, Mingsha Sand Dune, Crescent Spring are must see spots.

     3) Egypt- It has remnants of one of the earliest civilizations of the world. The Pyramids of Ghiza, Abu simbel temples, Statue of Ramsses , the Great, the Sphinx, Karnak Temple, Temple of Haschtepsut are amongst the most magnificent structures of the world. A cruise down the river Nile is also a must to relish the country’s beauty.

    4) Turkey- Undoubtedly, the very first place one has to go to Istanbul because it was the capital-ruling centre of both the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires and many of their former buildings still stand today. The old part of the city that is the Sultanahmet district belonging to the UNESCO World Heritage collection includes prominent landmarks and buildings such as the former church, mosque, and now museum of the Hagia Sophia. As one of Turkey’s most visited attractions receiving millions of visitors every year, Ephesus should be on everyone’s bucket list when they come to the country. Sitting in the central Anatolian region of Cappadocia, is one pf the most magnificent sites too. The mass of ancient cave churches and monasteries containing 13th and 14th-century original frescoes is hard to ignore, even if you are a hardcore atheist. Also, the three ancient landmarks of Miletus, Priene and Didyma, often marketed in travel brochures as one-day trips are remarkably close to each other. Then, the Temple of Apollo sits in the current holiday resort of Altinkum and as a former pagan worshipping Oracle structure. One should also venture to the Ghost Village of Kayakoy situated near the bustling city of Fethiye.

     5) Germany- One of the countries with the most brutal history, it is soul food for a traveller. The must-see spots in this country for any traveller are: Berlin's Brandenburg Gate, Cologne Cathedral (Kölner Dom), Cologne Cathedral (Kölner Dom),  The Black Forest,The Ultimate Fairytale Castle of Neuschwanstein, Miniatur Wunderland and the Historic Port of Hamburg, The Rhine Valley, Museum Island in Berlin,m Bamberg and the Bürgerstadt, Zugspitze Massif; these are a few spots amongst several other ones. This country also offers several picturesque sights and landscapes to look out for.

    6)  India- A magnificent country with a huge diversity of terrains, people and history. The history of this country is almost unmatched by any other. Vanarasi, the city of Gods, is a city depicting Hindu history.  Delhi, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri are amongst cities which show us architectural brilliance of the Mughal Empire. Udaipur, Raigarh, Jaipur are cities which depict the Rajasthani history. Almost any city in this country will have amazing historical spots, so it is a must for any history lover to explore!

    7)   Vatican City- It is one of the most popular theocracies of the world, as it stands to be a city-state of stringent orthodox of Christians. Yet, it is also one of the best places for traveller’s spots to look out for. St Peter’s Basilica, Sistine Chapel, Pinacoteca, Raphael’s rooms,  Appartamento Borgia, Etruscan Museum, Vatican Library, Egyptian museum are the best spots in the country. The architectural brilliant, the artist’s heaven, and a traveller’s paradise, it’s a must-see!

The Merchant of Venice

Does ‘The Merchant of Venice’ only celebrate the protagonists and belittle the antagonist like in all the cliché stories? Or does one have to read between the lines?

The plot of the brilliantly written tale goes like this:

To entice Portia, a wealthy Venetian heiress, a young Venetian, Bassanio, needs a loan of three thousand. He approaches his friend Antonio, who is a merchant. Antonio is short of money because all his capital is already invested in his fleet, which is currently at sea. He goes to a Jewish money lender, Shylock, who despises Antonio (rightly so?) because of Antonio’s stereotypes and demeaning behaviour towards him.

Nonetheless, Shylock decides to give the short-term loan because of Antonio’s insistence, but, in a moment of dark humour, he makes an absurd and cruel condition if the loan isn’t repaid within three months, Shylock would carve a pound of flesh from Antonio, from any part of his body. Antonio agrees, in good humour and mockery, certain that his ships will return pretty soon.

The parallel plotline follows the tale of Portia, who has to choose a suitor for herself. In order to suffice of the terms of Portia’s father’s will, all suitors must choose from among three caskets (silver, gold and lead), one of which contains a portrait of her. If he chooses the correct portrait, he may marry Portia, but if doesn’t he must vow never to marry or court another woman. The Princes of Morocco and Arragon fail the test, to the joy of Portia, and are instantly rejected. As Bassanio prepares to travel for the test, his friend Lorenzo elopes with Shylock’s daughter, Jessica. Bassanio , the final suitor, chooses the lead casket, which contains her picture, and Portia happily agrees to marry him immediately.

Meanwhile, two of Antonio’s ships get ravaged and Antonio’s creditors are insisting him to clear his debts. Bassanio hears of Antonio’s quandary, and he dashes back to Venice, leaving Portia behind. Portia follows him, accompanied by her maid, Nerissa. They are disguised as a male lawyer and his clerk. An infuriated Shylock takes the cast to the court. When Bassanio reaches on the date for the repayment to Shylock has passed and Shylock is demanding his pound of flesh. Even when Bassanio offers a greater amount as repayment, Shylock, now aggravated by the news of elopement of his daughter, is determined on seeking revenge on Antonio. The diplomatic Duke refuses to intrude into the matter.

Portia arrives to save Antonio, in her disguise. After being given the power of judgment by the Duke, Portia states wittily that the agreement was only about a pound of flesh and hence he cannot shed  a single drop of blood from Antonio’s body as it is against the law to shed a Christian’s blood. Since it is evident that to carve a pound of flesh would kill Antonio, Shylock is denied his suit. Moreover, for conspiring to murder a Venetian citizen, Portia orders that he should forfeit all his wealth. Half is to go to Venice, and half to Antonio.

Antonio gives his half back to Shylock on the condition that Shylock bestows it to his disowned daughter, Jessica.  His terms also specify that, Shylock must also convert to Christianity. A broken Shylock accepts. News arrives that Antonio’s remaining ships have returned safely. With the exception of Shylock, all celebrate a happy ending to the entire episode.

Yet one theme which has been argued over since time immemorial is the disposition of Shylock, the Jew.

The Merchant of Venice, one of the most popular plays of the William Shakespeare portrays Shylock as an antagonist. His evil disposition is highlighted throughout the classic. However, he is presented as a tragic character, representing the persecution of Jews in Elizabethan times. His character highlights how deprivation and oppression carves a deep impact on a person.

During the Victorian times, the Jews in Venice faced deprivation of rights. Along with that, they were treated with mockery, disgust and were merely ‘tolerated’ in Venice for their wealth. They were landless and subjected to confinement.  The Jews earned a living by usury and made great profits out of it as well. They were stereotyped and often insulted by the Christians and seen to hold a lower section in the society.

Shylock’s character highlights how vengeful a person tends to become because of being discriminated. He tries to seek revenge on Antonio, who spat on him and called him a dog because of his business. Shylock’s anguish for Antonio is clearly expressed in the monologue. This reflects how Antonio’s stereotypical and inhumane treatment affected him and created dark shades in his character.

Although, Shylock’s prime character trait shows him as nefarious, he is presented as a tragic character that represents the persecution and pitiful condition of the Jews in Elizabethan times.

This widely famous monologue portrays Shylock’s anguish regarding his treatment by Antonio. Him pointing out the specific disrespectful acts of Antonio which caused him embarrassment display his aversion. He was treated with mockery and seen to be inferior and his living means, that is usury, was seen as ‘unholy’ in Christian eyes.

The monologue:

“To bait fish withal. If it will feed nothing else, it will feed my revenge. He hath disgraced me and hindered me half a million, laughed at my losses, mocked at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my bargains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies—and what’s his reason? I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me I will execute—and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.”

Not only stereotypes, the end of the story also shows how Shylock is forcefully made to convert to Christianity, clearly putting light on the idea of religious chauvinism and superiority. Hence, it really is a matter of subjective interpretation to say who really the ‘villain’ in this tale was. 

HOW THE INDIAN NAVY NAMES ITS VESSELS

HOW THE INDIAN NAVY NAMES ITS VESSELS

The selection of names of ships and submarines of the Indian Navy is done by the Internal Nomenclature Committee (INC) at the Defence Ministry. The INC is headed by the Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Policy & Plans), and has representatives from different sections of various ministries. Names, crests and mottos of major war vessels require the assent of the President as well.

To maintain uniformity in the names of vessels of one type, the INC follows certain broad parameters, which have been enumerated in the policy guidelines.

 So, a cruiser or a destroyer is named after a state capital, a large city, or a great king or warrior from India’s history- for example, INS Delhi, INS Kolkata, INS Mysore, INS Mumbai, INS Rana and INS Ranjit. The frigates are named after a mountain range, a river or a weapon, but care is taken to ensure that the names of ships of the same class have the same initial letter. INS Sahaydri, INS Shivalik, INS Satpura, INS Talwar, INS Teg, INS Brahmaputra and INS Ganga fall in this category.

The corvettes are named after personal arms, such as the INS Khukri, INS Kripan ,and INS Khanjar, while multi-purpose patrol vessels are named after an island. Thus we have the  the INS Car Nicobar, INS Kalpani and INS Kruva. In accordance with their role, the anti-submarine warfare vessels have names  with an offensive or destructive connotation , such as INS Kamorta and INS Kadmatt.

As submarines operate underwater ,they are given either the name of a predatory fish or an abstract name associated with the ocean. The INS Arihant and INS Chakra are nuclear submarines: the conventional one have had names from INS Sindhughosh and INS Sindhukirti to INS Shalki and INS Shankul. The policy does not differentiate between the naming of the  two types of submarines.

India is in the process of building its first indigenous aircraft carrier, which has been named INS Vikrant after the first aircraft carrier that the Indian Navy bought from the British in 1957. The name for the second  indigenous aircraft carrier has not been decided yet. I t will be  named following a similar process and policy guidelines.

The Indian Navy formally decommissioned its aircraft carrier INS Viraat in march 2017, after 30 years of operational service . The ship had earlier been commissioned with the Royal Navy in 1959, and was known as HMS Hermes. India now has only one aircraft carrier, INS Vikramaditya, which was bought from Russia in 2004, it was known as Admiral Gorshkov.

How was INS Vikramaditya named? The internal nomenclature committee received proposals for various names- Vishaant, Vishwavijayi, Vishaal, Vikraal, Vaibhav, Vishwajeet ,Viddhawans, Veerendra and Visrujant. The shipping ministry informed the committee that a merchant ship had already been allotted the name Vishwavijayi. The committee the deliberated the options and unanimously chose Vikramaditya, which means The Sun Of Prowess, as a name that befits a large aircraft carrier. The historical then brought out a note on the significance of the title, which had been borne by several Indian sovereigns. 

                                               

Five Jews who Changed the World

The human world has been shaped and reshaped by several ground-breaking ideas. Such revolutionary ideas came to the minds of these extraordinary people like seeds and grew to become an enormous tree, galvanizing the whole wide world. One group of religious people of the world who have endured the most horrific hardships of all times are the Jews. Yet, time heals all ravages and several Jewish men went on to change the world through contemporary ideas.  Here are five such Jewish men who baffled the world and moved it in radical ways.

1.       Moses: The oldest amongst the list, Moses was a Hebrew prophet who is largely responsible for the Abrahamic religions of the world. Moses is honoured among Jews today as the "lawgiver of Israel", and he delivers several sets of laws in the course of the four Covenants. Moses changed the world and altered history. He did not do this by being the son of Pharaoh’s daughter. He did not do it with the best education or physical training. He did not do it with natural gifts. God may use any or all of these things in our lives. However, Moses changed history by yielding to the extraordinary dealings of God. He changed his world because he succumbed to what seemed to be very usual circumstances. The ordinary life he was living constructed in him the character he needed to fulfil his purpose in God. Finally, God disclosed that destiny to him and it was up to him to choose compliance. When he did, nothing could keep him from becoming one of the most amazing people in history. Moses has traditionally been regarded as the author of those four books and the Book of Genesis, which together comprise the Torah, the first and most revered section of the Hebrew Bible.

2.       Jesus: Jesus also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth and Jesus Christ, was a Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the principal figure of Christianity. Christians believe him to be the Son of God and the awaited Messiah promised in the Old Testament. He attempted to reform the traditional barbaric Jewish laws in his masterful way which was highly unappreciated by the orthodox clergymen. This lead to his crucifixion, yet his revolutionary and kind-hearted approaches changed the world and lead to the birth of one of the most pervasive religions in the world: Christianity.

3.       Einstein: Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. Einstein established the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). Einstein's work is also known for its effect on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known by the general public for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2 which is the world’s most prevalent equation. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in the year 1921, "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", an essential step in the evolution of quantum theory. He changed the world’s perspective towards physics entirely.

4.       Freud: Sigmund Freud is most popularly known as the father of psychology. He was a neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through discourse between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method through which an analyst unloads unconscious conflicts based on the free associations, dreams and fantasies of the patient. His theories on child sexuality, libido and the ego, amongst other topics, were some of the most significant academic concepts of the 20th century. He changed the entire landscape of traditional psychology.

5.       Marx: Karl Marx was a German philosopher, economist, political theorist, sociologist, journalist and revolutionary socialist. He was amongst the two other men to give shape and meaning to the field of Sociology. Marx's theories about society, economics and politics—collectively understood as Marxism—hold that human societies develop through class struggle. In capitalism, this establishes itself in the conflict between the ruling (richer classes known as bourgeoisie) classes that control the means of production and working classes (known as the proletariat) that permit these means by selling their labour power in return for wages. Employing a critical approach known as historical materialism, Marx forecasted that, like preceding socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal strains which would direct towards its self-destruction and replacement by a new system: socialism. By bringing in an entirely new discipline, he introduced a new perspective to the modern world.

The dot of the empty place

Bakshali manuscript extract

Recent carbon dating of the Bakhshali manuscript revealed that parts of it were written as early as third or fourth century, which predates the results of previous study, done with the parameters like style of writing, the literary and mathematical content and other factors, which showed they originated sometime between 8^th and 12^th century. It also revealed that samples were written in different centuries like some of them in 224-383 AD, another in 680-779 AD and another in 885-993 AD.

The scientists were not half as perplexed as how parts from different centuries came to be packaged as one, as they were excited from the discovery that this manuscript is now the most ancient known record of the symbol zero as we know it today. Although in these manuscript, zero is not depicted as a number but as a placeholder in number system. For example in the number “502”, “0” indicates no tens, and helps us differentiate it from “52”; here “0” works as a placeholder. It’s not worth anything on its own but it changes the value of other digits.

These writings were found in 1881 by a farmer in a field in Bakhshali near Peshawar, now in Pakistan. The texts of the script, written on birch bark in Sanskrit appeared to be the trading manuals of merchant traders doing business across Silk Road. In these manuals they have solved problems involving arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and mensuration covering topics like simple equations, simultaneous linear equations, quadratic equations and indeterminate equations of second degree.

These writings were found in 1881 by a farmer in a field in Bakhshali near Peshawar, now in Pakistan. The texts of the script, written on birch bark in Sanskrit appeared to be the trading manuals of merchant traders doing business across Silk Road. In these manuals they have solved problems involving arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and mensuration covering topics like simple equations, simultaneous linear equations, quadratic equations and indeterminate equations of second degree.

Although, there have been many ancient cultures which have used their own placeholder symbols. The Babylonians adopted a double wedge to symbolize nothingness around 5000 years ago; the Mayans used a shell to represent absence in their calendar system. By 1770 BC, the Egyptians used the symbol nfr  to depict “0” in accounting texts and to mark the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids, so that distances were to be measured from that base level. By 130 AD Ptolemy used ‘a small circle with a long overbar’ as a symbol for zero.

Before the findings on Bakhshali manuscript, Lokvibhaga, a Jain cosmological text, dated around 458 AD, was considered to be the oldest known mention of numeral “0”.

“That is exciting to recognize, that culture is important in making big mathematical breakthroughs. The Europeans, even when it was introduced to them, were like ‘Why would we need a number for nothing?’ It’s a very abstract leap.” said Marcus du Sautoy, professor of mathematics at the University of Oxford.

These developments of zero in the field of mathematics later expanded the range of further work in different fields of study like the idea of infinity, the modern explanation of vacuum in quantum physics, and even the most profound questions like how our universe came into existence and how it might vanish from existence in the future.